This webpage illustrates examples of the Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths (STEM) used in construction.
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Name given to accumulations younger than approximately 12 thousand years since the present and represents the very top of the geological System called the Quaternary; its scientific name is Holocene (Greek: entirely recent). Being at ground level it is the material through which and into which man constructs, in so doing disturbing it greatly and leaving in it man-made materials such as brick and plastic; such ground is called Made Ground or Artificial Ground.
Includes unravelling the geology of Made Ground, dealing with current geo-hazards (e.g. earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides), studying the record of climate change, or evolution, coping with contamination from the actions of man.
Includes working safely with recent materials especially man-made ground when contaminated, sampling and testing its variable content.
Includes safely building in this highly variable material which can be weak and compressible, and safely either utilising in a sustainable way or disposing man made ground.
Includes the numerical techniques required to describe these materials and the probability of certain types of material occurring.
One relevant reference to help you explore further (and remember to look at the references cited at the end of this work):
Rosenbaum. M.S., McMillan. A.A., Powell. J.H., Cooper. A.H., Culshaw. M.G., and Northmore. K.J. (2003) Classification of artificial (man-made) ground. Engineering Geology Vol 69 (3). 399-409. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(02)00282-X
Not the level of saturation although very close to it in coarse materials such as sand and gravel. The water table is the level at which the pressure of the water equals atmospheric pressure; its level varies with changes in atmospheric pressure but mainly with changes in recharge from rainfall and the extraction of water by pumps and drains.
Includes understanding the hydraulics of flow through the ground (hydrogeology), the links between the water table and the sources of water which support it (mainly rainfall), and the quality of the water.
Includes working safely in water bearing ground so as to avoid contaminating water supplies and correctly detecting the range of water pressures that can exist within a field of flowing groundwater.
Includes safely managing groundwater either by excluding it from works or pumping it from works, or by some combination of these two. Also includes the provision of public water supplies and keeping foul water and waste water separated from clean water and water supplies.
Includes the numerical techniques required to describe and predict ground water flow and ground water quality, and the response of groundwater and groundwater quality to inputs and outputs whether these be natural or man-made.
One relevant reference to help you explore further (and remember to look at the references cited at the end of this work):
Price M. (1996) Introducing Groundwater (second edition). Taylor Francis. 278 pages ISBN 0 74874 371 5 (Trouble finding this? Ask a Librarian)
For guidance on a career in Science Technology Engineering Mathematics (STEM) go to www.careersandstem.com
An extensive deposit of silt, sand and gravel accumulated as a terrace on the former valley floor of the River Thames from west of Slough through central London and on towards Dartford and the Thames estuary. There is more than one such terrace along the Thames (8 have been suggested) and their sediments form part of a Series called the Pleistocene which constitutes the bulk of the Quaternary extending back 2.6 million years from the present.
Includes a study of the glacial, interglacial and post glacial environments during deposition of these terraces, and their link to climate, sea level change, and the record of human evolution.
Includes working safely with the mineral and material wealth of the gravels which have been extensively used as a form of aggregate and remain an important host for ground water.
Includes safely constructing in the coarse grained deposits of the terrace and with the materials for construction that can be won from the terrace deposits (e.g. sand and gravel for concrete), whilst managing groundwater that may be encountered without detriment to the surrounding environment.
Includes the numerical techniques required to describe these materials, the probability of predicting their character from place to place, the analyses needed for quantifying ground water flow within them, and the dynamics of the formation of these terraces, especially that between sediment transport and deposition during different climatic regimes.
One relevant reference to help you explore further (and remember to look at the references cited at the end of this work):
Bridgland. D.R. (1994) The Pleistocene of the Thames. Chapter 1 from: Bridgland, D.R., (1994), Quaternary of the Thames, Geological Conservation Review Series, No. 7, Chapman and Hall, London, 441 pages. ISBN 0 41248 830 2 (Trouble finding this? Ask a Librarian)
For guidance on a career in Science Technology Engineering Mathematics (STEM) go to www.careersandstem.com
London Clay, more correctly named the London Clay Formation, was deposited during the Eocene epoch, approximately 50 million years before the present. It accumulated under marine conditions, i.e. in the sea, that formed part of a large basin that extended from Hampshire into central Europe. In Central London the basin was over 100m deep and a considerable thickness of the sediment was laid down as mud. Seeds recovered as fossils from the clay indicate a warmer climate than at present.
Includes a study of the sedimentation and later mineralogical and structural changes of the London Clay including the deformation it sustained during the collision of the African plate with that of Europe (Alpine orogeny). Superlative fossil remains provide excellent data for bio-evolutionary studies. Being beneath London its material and mechanical properties are a continual source of study especially as the deposit contains minerals that can attack concrete.
Includes the laboratory and field support to scientists and engineers with their investigations of the deposit for construction and of the material as a source of raw material for brick making, clay and the manufacture of cement.
Includes safely constructing in the London Clay especially beneath London and using sustainably the clay that arises from extensive excavations such as required for Crossrail and the Underground.
Includes the techniques required, including numerical, to describe the behaviour of the sediments that constitute London Clay and to predict their response to change of environment for manufacturing purposes, as well as for construction.
One relevant reference to help you explore further (and remember to look at the references cited at the end of this work):
Hight. D.W., McMillan, F., Powell. J.J.M., Jardine, R.J., and Allenou, C.P. (2003) Some characteristics of London Clay. In Tan et al (eds) Characterisation and Engineering Properties of Natural Soils(pages 851-907) Swets & Zeitlinger, Lisse, ISBN 9 05809 537 1 (Trouble finding this? Ask a Librarian)
For guidance on a career in Science Technology Engineering Mathematics (STEM) go to www.careersandstem.com
One way of determining what is beneath your feet is to drill a hole and see what it recovers; that is the essence of borehole drilling and is used extensively for exploring mineral deposits including oil and gas, and water supplies, and for determining the mechanical properties of the ground. Tests can be conducted on the cores recovered and within the hole itself. At Twickenham 7 holes were drilled some to 35m to prove the ground could carry the load of the building.
Boreholes will investigate and test only a small fraction of the ground affected by engineering, often much less than one percent. Considerable study is required to understand where and to what depth such holes should be drilled, and the tests to be conducted on the cores recovered and within the holes themselves to provide the information required, and how to interpret the information so gained.
Includes all the skills required to drill holes, recover samples and test the holes themselves without disturbing the natural environment. This includes handling the machines that perform such tasks, recording the progress of the hole during drilling and installing equipment into the hole so that the ground can be monitored later for changes occurring in response to engineering work.
Includes all the mechanical engineering required to safely drill holes in the ground as well as interpreting and using the properties of the ground so acquired to safely construct within it.
Includes the numerical and probabilistic techniques to optimise the location of boreholes especially when assessing mineral reserves including ground water and physical properties. Correlations are also sought between the huge amounts of data that can be gathered during drilling (pressure, torque, temperature, advance rate etc) with the ground through which the drill is passing.
One relevant reference to help you explore further (and remember to look at the references cited at the end of this work):
Australian Drilling Industry Training Committee Limited (2015) The Drilling Manual, Fifth Edition. CRC Press 800 pages ISBN 9 781 43981 420 8 (Trouble finding this? Ask a Librarian)
For guidance on a career in Science Technology Engineering Mathematics (STEM) go to www.careersandstem.com
A pile is column of material that has been either inserted into the ground or artificially formed there in place, so that a load placed at its upper end can be transferred to the ground along the length of the column and at its base, thus enabling the ground to carry the load on the pile. Earliest examples are tree trunks pushed into weak ground to provide the foundations for a platform upon which superstructure could be built. The transfer of load from the pile to the ground can be by friction and adhesion along the shaft of the pile and by directly loading the ground beneath the base of the pile. The ability of the ground to carry such loads from a pile generally increases with time. Piles can be placed sufficiently close to each other to create a wall in the ground, enabling ground on one side of the wall to be excavated whilst the piled wall retains the ground on its other side.
Includes understanding the interaction between ground, its groundwater and a pile. The ground could be of any sort, gravel, sand, silt and clay, and mixtures of these either as a uniform deposit or in layers. The pile can be made from different materials (e.g. concrete or loose stone) and formed in the ground in different ways (e.g. by pushing a rigid column of pre-formed material such as steel, or concrete, or by boring a hole and filling it with wet concrete which then sets).
Includes all the actions required to create piles either for insertion into the ground as a pre-formed unit or by forming the column in-situ. This embraces not only the action of making a pile but also control over the quality of the materials used to make the pile, the workmanship of their construction and measures required to protect them from corrosion with time.
Includes understanding the behaviour of individual piles and groups of piles sufficiently well for their useful performance in service to be predicted and thus used in construction, including their ultimate performance (i.e. when they fail to perform as they should). Piles of former foundations can be reused if circumstances are suitable.
Includes the numerical techniques required to capture the interaction between the ground and either a pile or a group of piles and so enable predictions to be made of their performance with the loads upon them and time. From such analyses guidance is gained on the key parameters to be measured when investigating ground prior to design.
One relevant reference to help you explore further (and remember to look at the references cited at the end of this work):
Bond. A.J, Schuppener B., Scarpelli. G., Orr. T.L.L., (2013) Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design Worked examples. Worked examples presented at the Workshop “Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design” Dublin, 13-14 June 2013. European Commission Joint Research Centre. Scientific & Policy Reports. Report EUR 26227 EN, 2013 (Trouble finding this? Ask a Librarian)
For guidance on a career in Science Technology Engineering Mathematics (STEM) go to www.careersandstem.com
Concrete is a composite material made from a mixture of particles of varying sizes called “aggregate”, bonded to each other by a water based binder, usually Portland cement activated by water, which sets with time so forming a dense and semi-homogeneous material. Being semi-fluid when made concrete can be moulded into almost any shape desired and is thus an extremely flexible and most commonly used building material. Concrete hardens and so strengthens with time. It can develop great strength in compression but is much less strong in tension. Thus structures composed of concrete which will be exposed to tensile stresses are reinforced with steel.
Includes a study of suitable materials for use as aggregates; ideally these should be inert. Gravel, sand and crushes rock are the common source of aggregate for concrete but some rocks contain minerals that react badly with cement (i.e. they are not inert) and cause concrete they include to weaken and eventually fail with time. The rheology of the hydraulic binder and atomic mechanisms governing its setting and hardening are also areas of continual study. Weathering and the surface appearance of concrete in different environments is also an on-going area for study.
Includes making, testing and controlling the quality of concrete using the ingredients (aggregate, cement and water) available, so that it has the setting times which make it serviceable and the strength required of it after a certain period. The range of particle sizes for aggregate, together with their shape and roughness can be a cause for concern as can be the quality of water available for mixing the cement. Setting in concrete is an exothermic reaction during which considerable heat can be generated and this has to be managed.
Includes using concrete as a construction material which changes its strength and stiffness from that of a thixotropic fluid to that of a rock over a period of hours, and then strengthens further over days; a process which continues by diminishing amounts for decades. The extent to which it will be exposed to tension will govern the need for reinforcement.
Includes the techniques required to describe the reactions occurring with time and environment over a range that spans from sub-microscopic to macroscopic. Much data exists for concrete and statistical analyses of performance remain an invaluable guide to design.
One relevant reference to help you explore further (and remember to look at the references cited at the end of this work):
Neville. A.M., (2011) Properties of Concrete (5th Edition) Pearson Education Ltd., ISBN 978 0 273 75580 7 (Trouble finding this? Ask a Librarian)
For guidance on a career in Science Technology Engineering Mathematics (STEM) go to www.careersandstem.com
The purpose of foundations is to transfer the loads of a building to the ground beneath it; it is the ground that ultimately carries these loads. The volume of ground required to do this depends on the magnitude and direction of the applied loads, the shape of the foundations and the strength and stiffness of the ground. In urban areas where buildings are in proximity and often adjacent it is necessary to ensure that the loading of a new building does not adversely affect its neighbours. Tunnelling in urban areas has to assess the extent to which such excavation influences ground loaded by buildings above a tunnel and ensure that the support they need is always provided.
Includes monitoring, observing and interpreting the response of buildings to other engineering works including subterranean excavations and new construction nearby, so as to acquire, through experience, a knowledge of (1) how the ground (a complex medium, being anisotropic and heterogeneous; i.e. not being the same from place to place) responds to changes in applied loads, and (2) how to describe ground in ways that are meaningful for predicting such responses.
Includes all the techniques needed to monitor and record the magnitude of load and displacement of the ground with respect to direction (i.e. as vectors) and time, so providing the data for static and dynamic analyses of the ground. This might be done in real time when subterranean excavations are able to interfere with the ground loaded by buildings at ground level and be the basis for analysing the risk associated with such work.
Includes designing the spatial distribution, vertical extent and sequence of construction so as to enable the ground to respond most appropriately to the loads and deformations associated with construction, especially if neighbouring properties and structures could be or will be affected. Where neighbouring properties could be affected further engineering interventions may be required to provide extra support to structures that are vulnerable or even strengthening of the ground so the works may be completed without distress.
Includes the techniques required to describe and predict the changes occurring with time in the ground in response to construction; these techniques include numerical modelling involving the interface between elements of quite different character. Non-linear relationships have to be accommodated. Considerable quantities of data need manipulating in 3D space and with time. Predictive models calibrated against experience (see Technology above) are normally used as a guide to knowing whether the ground is behaving as expected.
One relevant reference to help you explore further (and remember to look at the references cited at the end of this work):
Avgerinos V, Potts DM, Standing JR, Wan MSP. (2018) Predicting tunnelling-induced ground movements and interpreting field measurements using numerical analysis: Crossrail case study at Hyde Park, Geotechnique, 68, 31-49. ISSN: 0016-8505 (Trouble finding this? Ask a Librarian)
For guidance on a career in Science Technology Engineering Mathematics (STEM) go to www.careersandstem.com
This cartoon illustrates the principal operation of a pile. The axial load it carries (red arrows) is transferred to the ground by frictional resistance along its length (green arrows); action and reaction as in Newton’s 3rd Law. This process is aided by the horizontal loads on the pile which are not shown in the carton for clarity. Horizontal loads act radially to the long axis of the pile; those coming from the weight of the ground, point towards the axis of the pile and grip the pile: those coming from the weight of the concrete used to form the pile point away from the axis of the pile; both of these horizontal forces increase with depth. If the ground is incapable of generating the frictional resistance required the pile can be lengthened so as to end at an horizon that can carry its load. Piles that transfer all their load along their length are called “side bearing” and those that transfer their load to their base are called “end bearing”
Includes a study of the physical and chemical reactions occurring at the boundary between a pile and the ground with time as these are crucial to the transfer of load from a pile to the ground. The boundary rarely involves undisturbed ground as the process of forming the pile alters not only its virgin state but the magnitude and direction of the stresses within it.
Includes all the techniques necessary for forming a pile and groups of piles so that the ground can absorb their loads as required by the engineering design. In some cases this can mean ensuring there is almost no reaction along the wall of the pile and all the load is transferred to its base, and in other cases ensuring that the sides transfer all the loads.
Includes understanding and predicting how individual piles and groups of piles will operate under load. This involves integrating the science and technology involved with piling with the engineering requirements of the design.
The many variables at play in the science, technology and engineering of piling mean that verifiable advances in piling rely almost entirely upon the justification mathematical analyses of their practice can provide. Empiricism plays a very important part in ground engineering but needs to be anchored to appropriate theories for its predictions in piling to be held with confidence.
One relevant reference to help you explore further (and remember to look at the references cited at the end of this work):
P. J. Bourne-Webb, B. Amatya, K. Soga, T. Amis, C. Davidson, and P. Payne. (2009). Energy pile test at Lambeth College, London: geotechnical and thermodynamic aspects of pile response to heat cycles. Geotechnique, 59, 237-248. ISSN 0016-8505. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2009.59.3.237 (Trouble finding this? Ask a Librarian)
For guidance on a career in Science Technology Engineering Mathematics (STEM) go to www.careersandstem.com
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The London Borough of Richmond upon Thames in southwest London, England, forms part of Outer London and is the only London borough on both sides of the River Thames.